How to Write Radio
Drama Cues
While there are hundreds of books on writing film
screenplays and stage plays, radio scripting isn't a widely
known form. However, because radio is produced with the
script in hand, it is important that the various cues for
dialogue, music, and sound effects be able to quickly and
clearly communicate the writer's intentions to the cast and
crew for rehearsals and performance. Here are some
suggestions and examples to encourage clearly written radio
drama scripts.
I not only write and produce my own radio dramas, but
also re-create classic shows from the past and perform new
works by contemporary writers. Through the years, I have
found rehearsals and performances go more smoothly if the
scripts are very precise in their instructions to cast and
crew. This page--which I'll update as new ideas come to
me--addresses the many radio drama conventions and
guidelines in an effort to aid writers and
directors--especially those with little radio production
experience. I've worked on hundreds of radio dramas and have
honed these techniques to the point where I can produce a
25-minute show in just two hours--from start to
finish--(casting, rehearsal, and performance) for broadcast
or recording. Here's the secret of how you can do it too.
I mostly work in the live production style, where the
dialogue, music, and sound effects occur in real time as the
program is being performed for stage, recording, or
broadcast. These guidelines will aid you greatly if you
produce in a similar manner, but will also be useful if you
record dialogue separately and then assemble the finished
program in post-production. The intention of writing good
radio drama cues is to clearly communicate all instructions,
thereby cutting down on misunderstandings, notes, mistakes,
and time. A well-written script will save everybody
headaches and make your shows easier and cheaper to produce.
In explaining the conventions of writing an audio theatre
script, I'll work from the general to the specific, starting
with a typical page of a script. Learn to read a
professional script, then write your own, using my free
downloadable MS Word radio drama
script template. A short, professional demo script is
available at
life_demo_script.pdf, in the Adobe PDF format. You'll
need the free
Acrobat reader to view or print that PDF file. You can
also download and listen to a recording of that demo script,
Life's Little Ups & Downs, as a three-minute MP3 clip
demonstrating radio's imaginative range. [1.7 Mb]
I suggest you download the short script, print it out and
look it over to see how I apply the techniques below.
Click on any of the following links to jump directly to that
section of this document.
Page headings
Scene headings
Cues
Music
Engineer's instructions for music cues
Dialogue
Sound Effects
Production Notes
PAGE HEADINGS
The purpose of page headings is to indicate what program
or episode you're working on and what page you are on in the
script. These go across the top of the page.
Typical Header Examples:
Life's
Little Ups & Downs
Episode #1829
10.
The
Innocents Abroad
-17-
Holiday Playhouse
Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol REVISED
49.
Holiday Playhouse
Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol REVISED
49. 7/7/05
Holiday Playhouse
Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol
49-A.
Suspense
Roma Wine Ad
COMMERCIALS-1.
Explanation:
The page number should be in the top right hand corner, so actors can easily see
it as they page through their scripts in rehearsal and performance. Old time
radio scripts would use a period after a number or put dashes to either
side of it. I suggest you include program and episode titles on your script in
case somebody drops their script pages in a production featuring several
sketches or commercials. Many troupes don't use staples to hold their scripts
together, so pages can get out of order. I use one staple in the top left corner
and instruct my actors on how to turn script pages quietly--slowly flip the page
over. Don't ruffle the paper and make a sound.
If a script page is revised after the printed scripts have been given to cast
and crew, indicated REVISED on the page, so they can substitute the new pages
for the old ones. You may also want to add a date, in case there are future
revisions. New pages inserted into a script after printing can be designated by
adding an letter after the page number. So the paging might go 48, 49, 49-A,
49-B, 50, 51, etc.
For drop-in ads or announcements, I suggest creating
separate pages with their own numbering scheme. This way
they can be altered or added at the last minute and not
effect the page numbering scheme of the dramatic script. All
spacing is up to you. For these headings, use a small plain
font (like 8-point Arial) and give the page heading a bit of
space separating it from the script text so actors won't get
confused as they turn to a new page and begin speaking their
lines.
Footers
Footers at the bottom of the page can be used to indicate
the production company, the writer's contact info, or to
display the date or revision number of the script. Make sure
there's sufficient space between the script text and the
footer. Again a small 8-point Arial font here will help
differentiate the footer from the scripted cues.
Typical Footer Examples:
Production Co.
Name 12345 Main St. Radio City CA 90019 -
email@something.com
-- or --
Fourth Draft
3-04-2003
SCENE HEADINGS
Radio scene headings are based upon standard Hollywood
film screenplay format. They indicate the scene number,
description of the scene's location, and time of day. You
can also include info such as (FLASHBACK) or (MONTAGE).
A scene is some dramatic action that takes place
somewhere. If one scene ends, then there is a narrator who
leads you into another scene, put that narrator in the
middle. SCENE 4---NARRATOR---SCENE 5. If we switch
from one location to another and then the narrator begins
speaking, put that narrator in the latter scene. SCENE
5--SCENE 6 (with Narrator).
NOTE: Like all other script text (as opposed to headers
and footers) this is in a 12-point New Courier Font that has
been bolded to photocopy better. Other fonts can be
OK, but I strive for the traditional look of old-time-radio
scripts, plus the New Courier font has enough serifs to make
for easy reading in a live performance. All cues for
dialogue, music and sound effects are double-spaced, to
allow for easy reading on the fly and notes or new lines
added in rehearsal.
Examples:
SCENE 4: INT. ZORG'S
EARTHSHIP – DAY
SCENE 13: EXT. EMPTY
BATTLEFIELD – NIGHT (FLASHBACK)
SCENE 27: INT.
KATARINA'S TUMMY – 30 MINUTES LATER
Explanation:
Scene Numbers
Scenes are numbered to easily identify them. There may be
six scenes set on Zorg's Earthship. Numbering scenes keeps
them distinct from one another for discussions, rehearsals,
and direction. For example, a director could say to a sound
designer, "Zorg's Earthship in Scene 44 has just
suffered a power failure. I need the background ambiance of
beeps and such to be greatly reduced from all the other
scenes set on that Earthship..."
Environment Descriptions (Where and When)
Scene headings such as, EXT. EMPTY BATTLEFIELD - NIGHT
may seem too "visual" for a radio drama, but they are
very important to quickly and easily establish the setting
for actors, composers, sound effects artists, sound
designers, engineers and directors. Without this brief
description, everybody must try to figure out the setting
and time of day based upon dialogue or sound effects cues.
The listener may never hear these scene headings in
your drama, so some writers think it's unnecessary. However,
when this information is missing in the script, it must be
supplied verbally in meetings and rehearsal--sometimes
repeatedly. I've had to score or create sound effects for
many student scripts missing the scene headings and had a
hard time determining where a scene takes place. Don't make
anybody have to guess the setting. They could guess wrong
and thus misinterpret your drama. Save time and trouble by
describing the setting here--and make it brief.
Indicating INT. or EXT. (interior or exterior) can
help an engineer or director determine the micing or reverb
settings. This instruction may suggest background sounds
that are not indicated in a sound effects cue--like coyotes
for an outdoor scene at night. The DAY/NIGHT/30 MINUTES
LATER style info can suggest to a sound designer that
crickets or owls be used for background ambiance. It
also keeps the timeline straight for actors trying to
imagine the scene in their heads. The idea here is be
quickly set the scene for the players and technicians. Be
brief.
Characters in the Scene
I suggest you also include the names of any characters
appearing in the scene. This way the actors, who may be
sitting away from the microphone, can see that their lines
are coming up and get to the microphone in time. In live
radio, actors missing their cues really harm the show.
Example:
SCENE 14: INT. UNION
HALL – DAY
(Mary, Stewart, Babbo, Cuthbert, Lindsay)
RADIO DRAMA SCRIPT CUES
There are three things a listener hears in a radio drama:
dialogue, music, and sound effects. Each of these audio
components is called a "cue"—because they come at a specific
time in the script and the director may have to physically
point to someone ("cue them") to produce it.
Examples:
6. MUSIC: WRY TO POIGNANT (BRIDGE)--FADE UNDER.
7. SISYPHUS: Cuthbert! Get me out of here, my good man!
Try that bottle. The one on the dresser!
8. SOUND: CHAMPAGNE CORK POPS. SMALL CRASH.
Explanation:
These components are called "cues"--not to be confused with
"lines." These are "cues" no matter how many lines of
dialogue there may be in a single actor's speech. Clarity in
your script is very important to getting a quick and smooth
performance. Since everybody in a radio production is
reading along with the script, make it easy to do so. If
your script isn't clear, problems will arise--sapping your
time, energy and possibly the quality of the performance.
Cue Numbers
The purpose of numbering the cues is to speed rehearsals and
performances. With numbered cues, if you need everybody to
start or restart at a certain point in the script, you only
need to say, "Page 14, cue number 8," or "Page 43, cue 5."
The time-consuming alternative is for the director to start
reading lines aloud and everybody else having to scan
through their scripts to find where those lines occur on the
page. Just number them and call out the page-and-cue.
This is especially helpful when re-recording misspoken
dialogue lines after the full program has been recorded. You
just call out the page-and-cue for the lines and have the
actors say them again. These "pick ups" are also greatly
speeded by "slating" the re-take--calling out the page-cue
ID for the re-recording just before the actor says a line.
For example: "Re-take. Page 14, Cue 8" and then the actors
begin speaking.
In general use, cues numbers start over from #1 every so
often--to keep them out of triple digits which can eat into
the available space and tabs on a page. You can choose to
restart cue numbers beginning with every new page or with
every new scene. I prefer starting with cue #1 on every new
page, but have no problem when working with cues that
restart whenever a new scene begins. In fact, the
restart-with-each-new-scene makes sense when scripts are
being rewritten between rehearsal and performance. Try both
styles and see which one you prefer.
WRITER'S CUE NUMBERING TIP:
If the script is revised by adding or deleting cues or even
some dialogue lines within a cue, you may have to renumber
the cues, so when writing a script, I put an "X." in place
of any cue numbers until I'm at the point where I need to
print the script to go into rehearsals. I put off numbering
the cues until I'm ready to print a production draft of the
script.
Example:
X. MUSIC: HANGMAN'S THEME (STING)--FADE UNDER.
X. PRAIRIE ROSE: Wait a minute! We ain’t gonna hang him on a
fool notion like that! We’re a posse, not a
lynch mob!
X. SOUND: WALLA--GRUMBLES. ONE MAN SAYS "WE'RE NOT?"
Here's something to avoid when it comes to numbering your
cues. I've seen some radio script formats that number every
printed line in a script. Here's an example:
Don't number each line in a cue:
9. ANNOUNCER: And so Eunice found herself, once again, trapped in
10. the vacuum cleaner bag. Meanwhile, Biff was having
11. his own difficulties escaping Sylvie, the ravenous
12. gerbil. Only one person could save them--Captain Radio!
Avoid this numbering scheme. It interferes with easy
readability for cast and crew because it distracts the eye
from quickly scanning the short span of the dialogue lines
or music and sound effects cues. When actors see that far
left number, their eyes go to it and then have to work
across to the actual dialogue. Legal documents may benefit
from numbering every line, but radio scripts suffer. Keep it
simple and easy to read.
Here's the same dialogue without excessive numbering. See
for yourself how much easier it is keep your place.
DO number just the cue start:
9. ANNOUNCER: And so Eunice found herself, once again, trapped in
the vacuum cleaner bag. Meanwhile, Biff was having
his own difficulties escaping Sylvie, the ravenous
gerbil. Only one person could save them--Captain Radio!
MUSIC CUES
Music is invaluable to evoking emotion in drama. Clearly
written instructions regarding music cues will greatly aid
the cast and crew in determining the mood of a given scene.
Avoid using vague or non-descriptive music cues such as
MUSIC or MUSIC FADES INTO SCENE or MUSIC CUE
#18. If you don't understand the unique requirements of
radio scoring, see my article
Fitting Music to Radio Drama.
Type of music cues:
Music cues are used three ways and it can be helpful to
let cast and crew know how a cue will function when it
plays.
BRIDGE: Music played between scenes with no
dialogue over it. Also called "Act In" or "Act Out" music.
In radio it is the equivalent of the curtain falling or
rising on a scene.
BED: Music that plays under dialogue, either as brief
intro before fading or under the entirety of a speech for
dramatic use. A SOURCE BED cue has music being heard
by the characters while they talk. Say, music playing in the
background on a car radio while the characters are driving
or an orchestra playing while the characters are whispering
at the ballet.
STING: Music that arises suddenly to emphasize a line of
dialogue. This was a cliché used in soap operas where a
character would get to a certain word in a line and the
organist would hold one long note emphasizing the speech.
It's still used in film and TV, but with a bit more
subtlety. Now, it often leaps out of a music bed as a single
sustained note or chord.
When you write a music cue in a script, I suggest you
decide what type of use (BRIDGE, BED, STING) the music will
be put to and include that in the text of the cue
instruction. The music cue examples
below illustrate how to include these descriptions. If
the engineer sees (BED) in the cue description, he'll know
to keep it playing under the dialogue and the actors will
know their lines are getting dramatic underscoring--even if
they can't hear the music while speaking. Similarly, a
composer knows she needs a long bit of music under the
dialogue and that the music must not steal the listeners
attention away from the words. But if (BRIDGE) is
called for the composer can me more melodically striking
since she doesn't need to worry about stealing focus.
NOTE: Music and sound effects cues are always
underlined, as illustrated below. The underlining makes
it easy for musicians and sound effects artists to see they
have cues coming up. It also differentiates these cues from
dialogue--which is never underlined in this fashion.
This way actors don't stray from their lines to reading
aloud the sound effects or music instructions. As with
dialogue--music and sound effects cues are in a 12-point New
Courier font that's been bolded for photocopying.
Examples of typical music cues:
2. MUSIC: LONE RANGER THEME (BED)---ESTABLISH AND UNDER.
9. MUSIC: [A-21] FOREBODING EPISODE OPENER---(BED) UNDER--QUICK FADE AT
LINE: "...ON MARS!"
8. MUSIC: [L-2] (BRIDGE) BIG TROUBLE INTO HANGING ENDING.
11. MUSIC: [B-22] MINER'S LAMENT (BRIDGE)—LET IT FINISH
4. MUSIC: [A-3] BELLE'S THEME (BED)—LET IT FINISH UNDER.
6. MUSIC: [B-4] OVER MY DEAD BODY (STING)
10. MUSIC: [A-55] MELANCHOLY JAZZ TUNE (SOURCE BED)—IN B.G. UNDER
Explanation:
Music cues should include:
1) An identification of the music piece.
A playback track number can also be displayed here.
2) A description of the type of music cue
it is. (BRIDGE, BED, STING, SOURCE, etc.)
3) Instructions for the engineer on how
to fade up, fade down, or let a piece play.
Naming conventions:
I suggest music cues be named or described so they can be
referred to with the composer, engineer, and director. It's
a lot easier to refer to Belle's Theme than "the cue
between scenes four and five" or "the music cue at page
5—cue #8."
2. MUSIC: LONE RANGER THEME (BED)---ESTABLISH AND UNDER.
Cue #2 above is named "LONE RANGER THEME" and not
"WILLIAM TELL OVERTURE" because there may be a change in the
actual piece of music being used. I would instruct the
composer or engineer in a separate note to use Rossini's
"William Tell Overture" wherever "LONE RANGER THEME"
appears. You might also have a problem securing the
performance rights for a particular piece and have to shift
it later. "LONE RANGER THEME" explains what the music is
for. Try to name a cue for it's dramatic purpose rather than
name the actual piece of music's formal name. However, if
the characters must sing "Skip to My Lou," go ahead and
specify the song as the name of the cue.
9. MUSIC: [A-21] FOREBODING EPISODE OPENER---(BED) UNDER--QUICK FADE AT
LINE: "...ON MARS!"
Cue #9, "FOREBODING EPISODE OPENER," is named with a
description of the type of mood music needed to be
composed or found on a recording.
The music cues written by the great audio dramatist,
Norman Corwin, employed detailed descriptions to
instruct staff composers such as Bernard Herrmann to create
the appropriate mood music. You can also include such
specific instructions.
Here is one of Norman Corwin's music cues from his
radio version of Samson:
18. MUSIC: DELILAH'S HARSHNESS AND BITTERNESS ARE CARRIED OVER
INTO A PASSAGE WHICH SHOULD GIVE THE FEELING OF CONCLUSION
TO THE FOREGOING SCENE; THEN THERE IS THE TENSION OF
ANTICIPATION OF SAMSON'S ORDEAL TO COME.
Corwin's precise instructions were tailored for the large
production staff at CBS in the 1940s. Today, this kind of
detail would probably be given verbally or in separate notes
between a writer/director and composer or music supervisor.
You may wish to briefly describe the mood of the piece,
since that is the language spoken by composers of dramatic
underscoring and "music supervisors" who score using
existing recorded music.
8. MUSIC: [L-2] (BRIDGE) BIG TROUBLE INTO HANGING ENDING.
Music cue #8, "BIG TROUBLE INTO HANGING ENDING" is for a
live accompanist to improvise on. It describes the moods to
be evoked. The "L" in brackets is for "Live" indicating that
the live accompanist play here--as opposed to other
music cues such as [A-3] or [B-16] which might be
pre-recorded tracks. In radio, often the main and closing
themes may be pre-recorded pieces, while the cues within the
drama may be played live. This "L" labeling handles that
situation.
4. MUSIC: [A-3] BELLE'S THEME (BED)—LET IT FINISH UNDER.
Music cue #4, "BELLE'S THEME," is so named because
this music often accompanies the appearance of a character
named Belle. This is useful if you are using the "leitmotiv"
scoring approach, where each character gets a particular
musical theme. Peter and the Wolf and the Star
Wars films use this type of scoring style.
11. MUSIC: [B-22] MINER'S LAMENT (BRIDGE)—LET IT FINISH
Music cue #11, "A MINER'S LAMENT," is named for the
emotional purpose of the narration that will follow it. It
informs the composer what type of music is needed here and
puts the style of music into the context of the story.
6. MUSIC: [B-4] OVER MY DEAD BODY (STING)
I often name a cue based upon the dialogue that preceded
or follows it, or some description from the story. Music cue
#6 is called "OVER MY DEAD BODY" because that's the dialogue
line just before this music cue will play. The description
(STING) will be discussed below when I address types of
music cues.
Most music is dramatic underscoring, mood music that the
characters aren't supposed to be aware of. However,
sometimes there are calls for music to be playing in the
back ground of a scene--on a car radio, for example, or if
the characters are at a dance or a concert hall. These cues
are called "source" music because the source of the music is
something within the scene.
10. MUSIC: [A-55] MELANCHOLY JAZZ TUNE (SOURCE BED)—IN B.G. UNDER
Music cue #10, "MELANCHOLY JAZZ TUNE," is a source
cue for a jazz club scene. It plays throughout the scene and
could even be interrupted if, say a fight breaks out in the
club.
NOTE: I also supplement these music cue instructions by
highlighting the engineer's copy of the script with vertical
lines showing just how many dialogue and sound effects cues
I want music to run through. See my page on
Preparing Scripts for Fast
Production for more about this method of script
preparation.
Music Cues - Engineer's Instructions
Typically, music will play alone briefly to establish
itself and then, if dialogue will go over it, the music will
be faded a bit and finally faded completely out or left to
finish or fade itself. These important instructions should
be in the script. For many custom composed music
cues, I include the instruction "LET IT FINISH" so the
engineer doesn't fade too soon. The
example music cues above demonstrate typical ways of
handling such instruction.
Here are some regularly used engineer's instructions
regarding music cues:
FADE IN (begin playing the music and fade up the volume gradually)
FADE OUT (cut the volume gradually)
FADE UNDER (cut the volume once the actors begin to speak)
UNDER (let the music play under whatever the next cues are--sound effects or dialogue)
DUCK UNDER (fade slightly when someone begins speaking, but continue playing)
ESTABLISH (let the cue play a bit before any other sound begins)
QUIETLY IN B.G. (let this cue play quietly in the background)
CUT ABRUPTLY (often with a particular line of dialogue cited for when to cut)
CROSSFADE (fade one music (or other cue) in while fading another cue out)
SELF-FADING (indicating that the cue will fade itself out)
LET IT FINISH (play this cue in its entirety. Don't fade it out)
PLAY THROUGH AND OUT (this is the same as LET IT FINISH)
Another engineer's instruction is the numerical
designation of CD or DAT tracks or cue ID numbers for use by
a live band or accompanist. Put this information in
brackets, as in: [A-3] or [B-4] below:
Example:
4. MUSIC: [A-3] BELLE'S THEME (BED)—FADE QUICKLY UNDER.
5. BELLE: Jeremy! The only way you'll get a puppy is
over my dead body!
6. MUSIC: [B-4] OVER MY DEAD BODY (STING)
7. JEREMY: Did you say "dead" body, Belle?
Here, the [A-3] tells the engineer to use music
playback device "A" (like CD player "A") and to trigger
track number 3. The very next music cue [B-4]
indicates CD player "B" track number 4. Pre-recorded sound
effects should also use these instructions, if they are
being triggered by a CD player. When using such recorded or
"canned" sound effects, I suggest you indicate it with
[B-26S]. The final "S" stands for sample or pre-recorded
sound.
I recommend using two playback devices (CD player,
DAT, MiniDisk, MP3's triggered from a computer, sampler, etc.) This
allows you to quickly follow one cue with another--and even
to crossfade between cues. Plus, you can have pre-recorded
sound effects (rain or cars, for example) to play underneath
music.
DIALOGUE CUES
Radio scripts are the blueprints of your program. The
cast and crew depend upon radio scripts in a way quite
unlike film or stage scripts. Given enough preparation,
actors can memorize a radio script, but there is seldom time
in radio productions for such a luxury. So your script is
more like a musical score that must be read along to as the
play is performed. The cast and crew are the "band members"
being conducted by the director. A well-prepared "score" is
essential to having smooth rehearsals and
performances. Also, radio writers have more control over
their text because it is being interpreted as the
performance progresses. Be precise in your instructions and
the actors can be more faithful to your intentions.
Examples:
1. LORD CLIFF: (CALLS OUT) My brother-knights! I, Cliff of Thorsness,
proclaim this a fitting dance of victory! (PAUSE) And
now I will present our...Wait! My daughter, Elsa has
just arrived. Pardon, please...
2. ELSA: Father! You are hurt! Your head is bloodied.
------------
11. GRETCHEN: (GASPS) C-Cobra? W-Wait! There was a cobra in Lady
Bensington's dresser-drawer! I could have been... killed.
12. RUFFLETHORPE: A banded Egyptian cobra, Miss Laytherly. Species: Naja (NAW-JAW)
Baje (BAW-JAW) Annulifera--I believe. But my question
for Colonel Frothingham is, did this cobra crawl here?
13. COL. FROTHINGHAM: [FILTER] What? All the way from Egypt?
Explanation:
Formatting for radio speech is designed to aid in live,
error-free readings. You'll note the dialogue is formatted
in a bolded 12-point New Courier font, double spaced,
and indented, with a short span across the page. This
is to make the lines quickly readable, with space for
changes, notes or actor's markups. The short span across the
page makes it easy for actors eyes to jump to the next line
without losing their place. Also, the Courier font, which
has plenty of serifs is easy to read. San serif fonts, like
Arial or Helvetica are more likely to be mis-read. Use a 12
point font to be kind to your actors eyes. Often, recording
studios and stages are not lit well for reading scripts.
During a live production, this formatting proves invaluable.
For recording, it also saves time and trouble.
Warning: Avoid single spacing of dialogue. This may save
printing costs, but often costs you time and confusion in
production--as actors flub lines or have difficulty keeping
their place if they glance away from the script while
receiving a cue or making eye contact with an actor playing
opposite them. Double-spaced lines allow actors to mark up their scripts
for inflections, pauses and correct pronunciation of difficult or foreign words.
Examples:
Do NOT use single spacing like this:
1. SIR HARALD:
Deeper we went, past hellish lava
pits, the
remains of ancient camps--ghastly and strange.
But in a large grotto, lit by some far off dim
glow, a foul stench arose! The smell of a
thousand open graves!
Double spacing is much easier to read live:
1. SIR HARALD:
Deeper we went, past hellish lava
pits, the
remains of ancient camps--ghastly and strange.
But in a large grotto, lit by some far off dim
glow, a foul stench arose! The smell of a
thousand open graves!
Delivery Directions
Directions like (GASPS) and (LAUGHING) are
capitalized and appear in parentheses. The film script
equivalent--which employs upper and lower case (Gasps), (Laughing)
etc.,--isn't used in radio because these directions could be
mistakenly read along with the usual mixed-case dialogue. So
these "parentheticals" should be in all caps to
stand out as "not-dialogue." Generally, such delivery
directions aren't necessary when the dialogue can be read
straight and the desired effect achieved. But they should be
used if the reading should be in contrast to the text or
requires other emotional effects.
Example - Unnecessary delivery direction:
4. MIRIAM: (SADLY) Poor Polly has died.
Example - Necessary delivery direction:
4. MIRIAM: (SARCASTIC) Poor Polly has died.
-or-
4. MIRIAM: (SOBS) Poor Polly has died.
Directions can also be used to let the actor know to
switch from a narrating delivery to a conversational
in-scene style. This is especially useful for detective
stories or wherever a character narrates and then becomes a
participant in the scene.
8. RICK LOWELL: (NARRATING) Whoever it was got tired of waiting
and left. I gave them time to make the stairs and
then answered the phone--maybe it was Lyndon.
9. SOUND: PHONE RINGS (1X). PICK UP HANDSET.
10. RICK LOWELL: (IN SCENE) Hello--Miss George’s residence.
Technical Directions
Bracketed directions indicate technical information, for
instance, that the actor will be speaking through a filter
to simulate a telephone call. This instruction can tell the
actor to use a special microphone or tell the engineer to
activate a filter effect for that actor's microphone.
Similar other effects can be indicated this way:
[REVERB] [GHOSTLY EFFECT] [P.A. ECHO]
11. ANSWERING SERVICE: [FILTERED] This is the Melrose Answering Service
calling with an urgent message for Miss Gladys George.
-------
4. TRAIN ANNOUNCER: [P.A. ECHO] (ANNOUNCING) Arriving on track 11,
the Lark--from San Francisco.
Besides telling actors how they should deliver a line, these
directions also alert other cast members how to respond to
someone who's voice is being altered. The direction is not
necessary on every line, but perhaps a [NORMAL] direction
can be used to signal the end of the effected voice. I
generally mark up the engineer's script to indicate how long
an effect will be used. If a character has just emerged from
a cave, I would indicate that he's no longer to use the
reverb with the instruction [DRY].
7. FRIMLY: [REVERB] He's getting away, Inspector! We must
hurry. [DRY] Ah, now that he's out here
in the clearing, we've lost him.
Numbers and Pronunciation Help
When writing any numbers in dialogue, I suggest you follow
the news-radio style and write them out as words. For a
year, instead of 2005, write Two-Thousand-Five. For
telephone numbers, instead of 555-1212 use
Five-five-five--one-two-one-two. Writing the numbers out
as words will reduce actors' errors and transpositions.
Similarly, if a word is difficult to pronounce or could
cause a stumble, write out a phonetic pronunciation beside
it in parentheses.
Example:
2. COMMANDER TAL: Go ahead! Die! Die for the glory of the
Sigomah. (SEEGO-MAH) I don't care.
3. ZEEN: But we've done that since Fourteen-Ninety-Two!
Typographical Aids
I always include plenty of typographical markers to clarify
the dialogue and allow the actors to think and react quickly
as they deliver a line. Due to the short rehearsal time
typical in radio drama, any instruction given in the script
will aid actors and directors in interpreting your text
faithfully. Use markings to improve clarity. Be brief.
I employ underlining for emphasis; plenty of
commas to indicate breaks and clauses; ellipses... to
indicate pauses and em-dashes to delay phrases slightly. The
idea is to render the meaning clearly, so the actor
understands the line as it is being read.
It is very important to write with a special clarity of
expression—for the ear. I suggest you write a line and then
say it out loud and try to refine it so it slips off the
tongue easily--and is easily understood by actors and the
audience. If it needs typographical help to make the line's
meaning easily comprehensible, add the necessary markings.
Some actors or directors may bristle at the writer
including any such meaning markings in the script, but I've
yet to run into an actor who's interpretation so differed
from what the text intended. Most actors enjoy the ease of
my dialogue and how the intent is clear on the page. They
still manage to bring their interpretations to the dialogue,
but now they understand the text better. Typographical
direction is a real time-saver. It will greatly reduce the
number of "notes" that a director gives in rehearsal.
Plus if it's IN the script to begin with you won't have to
worry about actors remembering their notes from the
director.
Rhymed Dialogue
When working with rhymes, try to make the dialogue lines
break on the rhyming words. This will make it easier for
actors to deliver the lines with the proper rhyme emphasis.
Underlining can also help.
Example:
5. NARRATOR: Now, the only other creature who lived around there,
Was a mean old Troll--built like a nightmare!
He had eyes like saucers, and a bitter little heart,
And a long pointy nose, but he wasn't very smart.
Dialogue in Verse
Adapting William Shakespeare or other classics presents
problems because the typographical style for versification
which typical of such works makes radio-style
reading-on-the-fly difficult.
Example of traditional versified dialogue – difficult
to deliver cold:
7. EARL OF RICHMOND: The sweetest sleep, and fairest-boding dreams
That ever entered in a drowsy head.
Methought their souls whose bodies Richard murdered
Came to my tent, and cried on victory.
How far into the morning is it, lords?
Here, it may be necessary to remove unnecessary
capitalization and spacing to allow the lines to flow the
way a stage actor would deliver them--from memory.
Example of DE-versified dialogue – easier to deliver
cold:
7. EARL OF RICHMOND: The sweetest sleep and fairest-boding dreams
that ever entered in a drowsy head. Methought
their souls--whose bodies Richard murdered--came
to my tent and cried on victory. (PAUSE) How
far into the morning is it, lords?
Non-Speaking Dialogue
There are times when characters grunt or groan or scream.
Here are ways to handle them through delivery directions.
5. EDDY: If I can just pull this brick out (GRUNTS) Uhh! There!
And... open the hatch... (GROANS) Noooo! Get back!
Back you monster. No! Back! (SCREAMS) Yaaaaah!
Ad libbed
Dialogue
Sometimes characters are instructed to continue speaking
beyond the scripted dialogue. It is indicated this way:
11. ALL: (GASP) (AD LIB) Lord Bensington! No! Egad!
3. MIKE MAZE: This is Mike Maze at the corner of Beverly and Santa
Monica. As you can hear behind me, we have a massive
traffic jam throughout the city. Every car, truck, and
Bus has stopped. It's totally unexplained. (AD LIB UNDER)
Other
Common Delivery instructions
A variety of instructions can be indicated. Here's a
partial list:
(ENTERING/EXITING) - Moving towards or
away from the microphone--often speaking louder or softer.
(RUNNING, RUNNING IN ) - Running
into a scene (out of breath)
(FADING IN, FADING OUT) - Bringing the
volume up or down--either via a volume control or
entering/exiting.
(TO SAM, TO ALL) - Speaking to a particular
character when several are in a scene.
(DISTANT, OFF MIC) - The actor steps back from
the mic to sound like he's farther away.
(CALLS OUT, SCREAMS)
- The actor raises his mouth to shout or scream to the
ceiling.
It is especially useful to keep dialogue from breaking
unnaturally across several pages. If you have a long speech,
try to break it at a paragraph or sentence ending. Indicate
that there's more lines coming on the next page.
Example of breaking a speech across two pages:
6. SGT. FRIMLY: That afternoon, Inspector Rufflethorpe and I interviewed
the guests at Twitshyre Manor. Of course, they all had
alibis for the time of Lord Bensington's murder. However,
some were alarmed by the very notion of a curse.
(MORE...)
[A new page starts here]
1. SGT. FRIMLY (CONT'D) At dinner, there was much talk of the
super-natural, led by that mysterious beauty,
the Countess Valeska...
SOUND EFFECT CUES
Sound effects, often abbreviated as SFX, can help set the
scene (factory, barnyard, ballgame, etc.) or depict action
(door knocks, footsteps, gunshots, car crashes.) Sounds are
the action, the motion in your play. Don't overuse them. You
do not need sounds in every scene, don't make
characters do things just to give them a sound effect under
their dialogue. It's always better to under-use sound
effects than to overuse them.
There are two types of sounds, self-identifying sounds
and unidentified ones. If you hear a door knock, you know
what it is. It doesn't require somebody to say, "I'll just
knock on the door" prior to the door knock sound effect.
However, some sounds,--such as a dull thud or a crash--may be too
indistinct for the audience to understand what it is just
from the sound. These require some dialogue to clarify them.
The only sound effects necessary for a scene are the ones
you would "hear" in your head as you read the page. In
radio, sound effects create a reality--they suggest
something that is often described in dialogue. You do not
need to add every sound that a real location would have--if you use too
many sound effects or have a very busy ambience behind the dialogue--it becomes "noise"--unidentified sounds.
Film
and Television have a special approach to sound effects that
does NOT apply to radio drama. The purpose of sounds in film
is to reinforce what you are seeing on the screen. If
you see someone zipper a jacket in a film, there had better
be a sound to accompany the image or it won't seem real.
That mimicry of pictured sounds is called "Foley" after Jack Foley, who adapted sound effects for film.
However, Foley is largely sounds of humans touching
things--footsteps, car keys, drawers. Whereas radio sound
effects artists also do wind, rain, planes, crashes, cars
and other sounds that are left to sound designers in film.
NOTE: Don't call radio sound effects "foley." Not only are their origins
separate, but professional radio sound effects artists are members of the
A.F.T.R.A. (American Federation of Television & Radio Artists) union, while film
foley artists and film sound designers are members of the M.P.S.E. (Motion
Picture Sound Editors) union. Be professional and use the proper terms.
In radio there are two types of sound effects, manual and
recorded ones. The manual ones are created live by sound
effects artists. These are the footsteps, door slams,
pouring water, etc. The pre-recorded sounds, also called
"samples" or "grams," are used for reproducing sounds too
difficult to create manually--rainstorms, ambulances, jet
planes, cars, crickets, etc.
Often there will be several sound effects artists some
manual and another triggering pre-recorded effects.
They will work
together to layer the two types of sound. As the writer, you
do not need to specify which will be manual and which will
be
pre-recorded--let the sound effects artists decide,
but have them look over the script and make suggestions,
THEN write their cues and instructions into the production
script. Here are some general rules about writing sound
effect cues.
NOTE: Sound effects and music cues are always
underlined, as illustrated below. The underlining makes
it easy for sound effects artists and musicians to see they
have cues coming up. It also differentiates these cues from
dialogue--which is never underlined in this fashion.
This way actors don't stray from their lines to reading
aloud the sound effects or music instructions.
As with dialogue--music and sound effects cues are in a
12-point New Courier font that's been bolded for
photocopying.
A sound effects artist will always grab a device and then
manipulate it, so model your cues to follow that same
process.
Indicate WHAT the sound is first, then How it is to be
played---and for how long. Think
NOUN-->VERB-->MODIFIER.
7. SOUND: TEA TRAY CRASHES LOUDLY. BODY DROPS.
3. SOUND: DOOR CLOSES/LOCKS. CLOCK CHIME (10X)--CONTINUE
UNDER.
6. SOUND: GUNSHOT. (PAUSE) GUNSHOT. (PAUSE) GUNSHOT.
14. SOUND: TIM'S FOOTSTEPS RUN UP. GUNSHOTS (4X)
Be very specific about who is doing what. Tim's footsteps
will sound very different from Maria's.
Describe the sound you are emulating and not some device
you might think the artist will use to create it. So don't
write a cue like "slapstick" when you want a whip or
"crinkle paper" when you mean "fire crackling." And never
write cues like "the sound of grass on her feet" or "the
sound of a slap." Grass doesn't make a sound on feet and
just write "slap" if that's what you need. Once you've
written your script, give it to the sound effects artist and
ask for comments or clarifications. The artist will make
notes and rewrite the cues. Take those changes and
incorporate it into your production script. Then everybody
will know how many door knock or telephone rings have to
sound before they can come it for their line.
How to indicate sound effects to match dialogue
Sometimes a series of sound effects accompanies dialogue,
with the SFX occurring as a particular line or word is
spoken. There are several ways to indicate such timing. I
generally list SFX cues prior to the dialogue and let the
SFX artist put them in where she feels they fit. You can
also specify exactly where a certain effect must occur.
Example of SFX cue preceding dialogue:
7.
SOUND:
CAR STOP. CAR DOOR SLAMS (2X) FOOTSTEPS ON
WALK--CUED WITH LINES THRU "AND THE GIRL"
8. RICK:
(NARRATING) We pulled up in front of the
prop house and got out. The two thugs kept
their guns on us as we walked up the ramp
and into the building. Now they had me and
the girl.
Example of SFX cues placed within dialogue
7.
SOUND:
CAR STOP.
8. RICK:
(NARRATING) We pulled up in front of the
prop house and got out. (SFX: CAR DOOR SLAMS
(2X)) The two thugs kept their guns on us
(SFX: FOOTSTEPS WALK-- UNDER) as we walked
up the ramp and into the building. Now they
had me and the girl.
However, interrupting dialogue lines with sound effects
cues may make the delivery of lines more difficult. This is
an option I don't use very often.
Indicating Pre-recorded Sound Effects
Many sound effects can be produced manually,
especially footsteps, door knocks and such, but some sounds
are difficult to produce manually (rain, cars, planes,
explosions, etc.) . Here pre-recorded sounds are best. Even
in the golden age of radio, pre-recorded sounds were an
important part of many dramas.
Usually, live sounds are performed by one SFX artist
while another artist or engineer will trigger the
pre-recorded sounds. It is useful to indicate which sounds
are pre-recorded--often called "samples" or "grams" (short
for "phonograms"). They can either get their own SFX cue,
but I find that live and pre-recorded sound often are
employed together, so I suggest mixing them in the same cue.
Example of Sampled and Live Sound Effects:
8.
SOUND: [A-23S]
JETLINER CRUISING ALONG. [B-24S] FLYING
SAUCER. RAY GUN BLASTS (4X)
Here, the jetliner and flying saucer are sampled SFX and
the ray gun blasts are live manual effects. The A- and B-
entries for the bracketed samples designate two different
playback devices--so the jetliner sound continues while the
flying saucer zooms by.
Indicating Silence or the Silencing of Sound Effects
Sometimes silence is a powerful sound in itself. Also,
there are times when a scene ends abruptly or blacks out and
you need to cut all sound effects at once. Here's how to
indicate that:
Example of silence:
7.
SCROOGE:
What in the ...world? (PAUSE) N-Nonsense.
Humbug! It’s all humbug! I had...Wait!
What-what’s that?
8.
SOUND:
SILENCE FOR 3 SECONDS THEN [REVERBED] CRASH.
CHAINS RATTLING. FOOTSTEPS. CONTINUE UNDER.
Example of silencing sound effects:
2.
SOUND:
ROBOT SPIDER SQUEAL. BENDING METAL--UNDER.
3. RADIO
RANGER: It’s grabbing the elevator!
Hang on!
4. MAC:
I’m... being... sucked... in! (SCREAMS)
Ahhhhhhh!
5.
SOUND:
SILENCE.
Walla-Walla - crowd sounds
One of the most effective and convincing sound effects is
the made by having the cast or SFX crew mumble to simulate
crowds. This is called "Walla-Walla" because the sound is
indistinct. See my article on how to
use Walla-Walla for more information on the theory and
practice of this powerful effect. Here's how to use it in a
script.
Example of walla-walla:
7. EARL:
Why, then ‘tis time to arm and give direction.
8.
SOUND:
WALLA--EXCITED SOLDIERS. THEY HUSH QUICKLY.
The idea is to indicate that it is walla and then
describe who and how they are chattering. On my marked up
master scripts for actors and SFX crews, I also circle the
walla description so it stands out and the cast can see they
should contribute to it. As a director, I might choose
certain actors to do walla--generally those not already
speaking in a certain scene where the walla will occur.
Walla for radio should usually be mumbling and not real
words or sentences because it can steal the listener's
attention from the scripted dialogue. However, there are
times where crowds are supposed to be reacting to a
situation and you will want specific phrases to be used in
the Walla. Here's an example:
Examples of Walla using scripted phrases:
6. MRS.
MALORY: Please, everyone! Have a
spot of lunch
to calm your nerves, won’t you?
7.
SOUND:
WALLA--”LUNCHEON?” “I’M FAMISHED” “AFTER YOU."
ETC.
PRODUCTION NOTES
There are times when you must enter specific instructions
to the engineer, cast or crew and they are handled as
production notes--comments from the writer on how to
coordinate cues or obtain a certain effect. Here are some
examples:
PRODUCTION NOTE:
Put Raymond AND the sound effects through a reverb, to
make it appear that we are hearing his thoughts. As he
speaks, sound effects fade in and out for a montage. His
story will halt suddenly with a scream and we will return
to the external world of his hospital room.
------------------------
5.
SCROOGE: I beg
you, I’ll change...I’ll change...
PRODUCTION NOTE:
The reverb on Scrooge’s voice gets “drier” until
completely dry, signifying his return to reality.
Dry it up by "Please, please!
6.
SCROOGE: I’ll
change...I’ll change...Please, please!
----------------------
PRODUCTION NOTE:
Put the sound effects and dialogue through REVERBS.
Frimly’s narration remains dry, but his dialogue is "wet."
--------------------
PRODUCTION NOTE:
The Walla parts may be farmed out to actors with
smaller parts. The ghostly walla parts will be
done near the reverbed SFX microphone, all others
will be at the regular (dry) mikes.
"Q" Markups
When a sound effect or music cue must be established or complete before a
dialogue line begins, you must mark the script to indicate that actors should
wait for the cue to be finished or wait for the director to cue them to begin.
You can add [CUE] at the point in the dialogue or SFX or music
description where
the performer should wait for the director to signal.
I also indicate this by marking up the master script by
hand with a large letter "Q" beside the next dialogue line
after a certain, important sound effect or music cue. The
way to determine where to mark up the script is if the music
cue must be established to a certain point--for example 8
seconds in--before the actor should begin speaking, them
mark their dialogue line with a "Q". For sound effects, it
is only necessary to mark up the script if the characters
must directly react to that effect. For example, if a
gun shot must be fired before the actor can say, "I'm shot!"
Many times actors ignore sound effects and music cues and
begin their lines too soon. The "Q" mark makes them wait.
When typing up the script on the computer I use an asterisk
beside the cue number to later tell me where I intended the
handwritten "Q" to be.
Examples of Q Mark Ups:
8.
SOUND:
DOOR & BELL OPENS/CLOSES. BOB CRATCHIT'S SNEAKY FOOTSTEPS.
Q 9*
SCROOGE: [CUE] (MOCK
ANGRY) “Mister Cratchit!” (CHUCKLES)
What do you mean by coming in at this time?
-----------------------
3.
MUSIC: [A-2] TWITSHIRE INTRO--UP FULL. DUCK.
Q 4*
FRIMLY: [CUE] Hullo. I’m
Sergeant Frimly. I ask you,
how can a murderer vanish into thin air?
This covers most common requirements for writing radio
drama cues. The key idea to remember is to clearly indicate
the requirements of the scene in a fashion that can be read
and interpreted in real time during the production of the
program. A well prepared script will save hours and
headaches for cast, crew and even the listening audience.
Good luck.
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